Introduction to Environmental Pollution

Introduction to Environmental Pollution


Environmental pollution is the introduction of contaminants into the environment that makes the environment unhealthy for habitation and on the extreme, can harm the ecosystem. The causes of pollution depend on the type of pollution under view.

Air pollution This is the release of polluting chemicals and particulates into the atmosphere. These pollutants makes it unhealthy to breathe in such air. Common air pollutants are sulfur dioxide, chlorofluorocarbons (CFC), carbon monoxide, and nitrogen oxides produced by industry and motor vehicles. When hydrocarbons and nitrogen oxides react to sunlight, smog and photochemical ozone are formed when nitrogen oxides and hydrocarbons react to sunlight.

Water pollution When waste products and potential contaminants are released into river drainage systems and other water bodies making the water unfit or compromising the quality of the water for use by man or habitation of water fauna and flora, we have water pollution.

Soil Contamination occurs when chemicals are released by spill or underground leakage. Among The most significant soil contaminants are hydrocarbons, heavy metals, herbicides, pesticides and chlorinated hydrocarbons.

Radioactive contamination, resulting from 20th century activities in atomic physics, such as nuclear power generation and nuclear weapons research, manufacture and deployment.

Noise pollution, which encompasses roadway noise, aircraft noise, industrial noise as well as high-intensity sonar.

Light pollution, includes light trespass, over-illumination and astronomical interference.

Visual pollution, which can refer to the presence of overhead power lines, motorway billboards, scarred landforms , open storage of trash or municipal solid waste.

Thermal pollution, is a temperature change in natural water bodies caused by human influence, such as use of water as coolant in a power plant.



DEFINITION:

Environmental pollution is “the contamination of the physical and biological components of the earth/atmosphere system to such an extent that normal environmental processes are adversely affected”.

Effects:

Apart from destroying the aquatic life in lakes and streams, acid rain can also corrode metals, damage surfaces of buildings and monuments, and cause soil acidification.

Pollution of water may cause oxygen depletion in marine environments and severely affect the health of whole ecosystems.

Control measures of environmental pollution:

It's clear that fossil fuels are among the biggest sources of pollution. We need to find alternative renewable sources of energy which can replace fossil fuels in the future.

Green investment provides a great platform to explore and develop new and clean sources of energy such as solar electricity.

Building your own solar panels and using diy solar energy systems to meet at least part of your home electricity needs is another emerging opportunity for diy enthusiasts. This can really make a positive difference to the environment and reduce current pollution levels.

Causes of Environmental pollution:

We all are aware of environmental pollution. Our planet earth differs from other planets in having an environment. The biosphere in which living beings have their sustenance has oxygen, nitrogen, carbon dioxide, argon and water vapour. All these are well balanced to ensure a healthy life in the world. The introduction of contaminants into an environment is called environmental pollution. Due to environmental pollution instability, disorder, harm or discomfort to the physical systems or living organisms are caused.



Air Pollution

One of the formal definitions of air pollution is as follows – ‘The presence in the atmosphere of one or more contaminants in such quality and for such duration as is injurious, or tends to be injurious, to human health or welfare, animal or plant life.’ It is the contamination of air by the discharge of harmful substances. Air pollution can cause health problems and it can also damage the environment and property. It has caused thinning of the protective ozone layer of the atmosphere, which is leading to climate change.

Modernisation and progress have led to air getting more and more polluted over the years. Industries, vehicles, increase in the population, and urbanization are some of the major factors responsible for air pollution. The following industries are among those that emit a great deal of pollutants into the air: thermal power plants, cement, steel, refineries, petro chemicals, and mines.

Air pollution results from a variety of causes, not all of which are within human control. Dust storms in desert areas and smoke from forest fires and grass fires contribute to chemical and particulate pollution of the air. The source of pollution may be in one country but the impact of pollution may be felt elsewhere. The discovery of pesticides in Antarctica, where they have never been used, suggests the extent to which aerial transport can carry pollutants from one place to another.

Listed below are the major air pollutants and their sources.

Carbon monoxide (CO) is a colourless, odourless gas that is produced by the incomplete burning of carbon-based fuels including petrol, diesel, and wood. It is also produced from the combustion of natural and synthetic products such as cigarettes. It lowers the amount of oxygen that enters our blood . It can slow our reflexes and make us confused and sleepy.

Carbon dioxide (CO2) is the principle greenhouse gas emitted as a result of human activities such as the burning of coal, oil, and natural gases.

Chloroflorocarbons (CFC) are gases that are released mainly from air-conditioning systems and refrigeration. When released into the air, CFCs rise to the stratosphere, where they come in contact with few other gases, which leads to a reduction of the ozone layer that protects the earth from the harmful ultraviolet rays of the sun.

Lead is present in petrol, diesel, lead batteries, paints, hair dye products, etc. Lead affects children in particular. It can cause nervous system damage and digestive problems and, in some cases, cause cancer.

Ozone occur naturally in the upper layers of the atmosphere. This important gas shields the earth from the harmful ultraviolet rays of the sun. However, at the ground level, it is a pollutant with highly toxic effects. Vehicles and industries are the major source of ground-level ozone emissions. Ozone makes our eyes itch, burn, and water. It lowers our resistance to colds and pneumonia.

Nitrogen oxide (Nox) causes smog and acid rain. It is produced from burning fuels including petrol, diesel, and coal. Nitrogen oxides can make children susceptible to respiratory diseases in winters.



Water Pollution:

When toxic substances enter lakes, streams, rivers, oceans, and other water bodies, they get dissolved or lie suspended in water or get deposited on the bed. This results in the pollution of water whereby the quality of the water deteriorates, affecting aquatic ecosystems. Pollutants can also seep down and affect the groundwater deposits.

Today, many people dump their garbage into streams, lakes, rivers, and seas, thus making water bodies the final resting place of cans, bottles, plastics, and other household products. The various substances that we use for keeping our houses clean add to water pollution as they contain harmful chemicals. In the past, people mostly used soaps made from animal and vegetable fat for all types of washing. But most of today’s cleaning products are synthetic detergents and come from the petrochemical industry. Most detergents and washing powders contain phosphates, which are used to soften the water among other things. These and other chemicals contained in washing powders affect the health of all forms of life in the water.

The effects of water pollution are not only devastating to people but also to animals, fish, and birds. Polluted water is unsuitable for drinking, recreation, agriculture, and industry. It diminishes the aesthetic quality of lakes and rivers. More seriously, contaminated water destroys aquatic life and reduces its reproductive ability. Eventually, it is a hazard to human health. Nobody can escape the effects of water pollution



Ground water Pollution:



The concentration of many pollutants in groundwater is often higher than that in the most contaminated surface water supplies. Many of the chemicals are tasteless and odorless at concentrations believed to pose a threat to human health. The major groundwater pollutants are chlorides, nitrates, heavy metals, and toxic organics.

Since groundwater usually moves slowly through an aquifer, it may take years for pollution to show up in areas adjacent to sources of contamination. Once an aquifer is contaminated the pollutants may remain for centuries.

Ocean Pollution:



The oceans receive pollutants from many sources. Oil pollutions is one of the more serious problems. About half of the oil that contaminates the ocean comes from human sources: oil well blowouts, tanker spills, and inland disposal of oil. Oil harms many organisms, especially if a spill occurs near an estuarine zone.



It may take two to ten years for aquatic life to recover from a spill. Thanks to public outcry and stricter controls, the number of oil spills has decreased substantially, although the problem is far from solved.



Plastic pollution has also become a major problem throughout the world. Plastic nets, plastic garbage, and plastic medical wastes are killing millions of marine mammals, turtles, and fish. Animals may become tangles in the plastic debris or may eat it and die. Because of public outcry, many governments have banned the dumping of plastics in oceans.



Soil pollution:

Soil pollution is defined as the build-up in soils of persistent toxic compounds, chemicals, salts, radioactive materials, or disease causing agents, which have adverse effects on plant growth and animal health.

The wars that hit the earth are probably the immediate cause of soil pollution. Not talking in the sense of how many people died but in that it is through this period that many countries found the necessity to improve their living standards. After the world war two, many countries suffered from food shortage and this facilitated the introduction of fertilizers and other agricultural chemicals. Although KNP [ Potassium, Nitrogen, Phosphorus] fertilisers has not led to soil pollution, the application of trace elements has.

Pesticides such as DDT [dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane]a colourless chemical pesticide, which is a potent nerve poison in insects was first widely used to combat diseases such as yellow fever and malaria. It was later used to control and/ or eradicate disease carrying and crop eating insects. DDT was later on discovered to cause end agreement of species in the same food chain as the

controlled insects, particularly birds. DDT prevents the shelling of bird eggs and in humans causes health threats.

In yet another famous war of Vietnam in 1970's was introduced another Chemical substance which had a more adverse effect than that of DDT, Dioxin a chemical impurity resulting from the production of the auxin 2,4,5T. Dioxin is a toxic chemical and was used as a defoliant by the American army. Dioxin was a major constituent of argent orange which was applied on trees which would then fall off reaviling enemy camps. After the war it was found that the chemical cause congenital deformalities and mental effects to the children born to the American soldiers and in the area over which it was applied. In minute amount dioxin has the ability to cause cancer,chloracne, miscarriage, and fetal abnormalities.

CONTROL :

Soil pollution has been slightly controlled by putting regulations on the use of DDT and introduction of alternatives to it. However the task of eliminating completely soil pollution is not easy, third some third world countries still utilize pollutants such as DDT as pesticides. Mining cannot be stopped because we are in constant need for mineral ores for different applications.

Marine pollution:



Marine pollution occurs when harmful effects, or potentially harmful effects,can result from the entry into the ocean of chemicals, particles, industrial, agricultural and residential waste, noise, or the spread of invasive organisms. Most sources of marine pollution are land based. The pollution often comes from nonpoint sources such as agricultural runoff and wind blown debris.

Many potentially toxic chemicals adhere to tiny particles which are then taken up by plankton and benthos animals, most of which are either deposit or filter feeders. In this way, the toxins are concentrated upward within ocean food chains. Many particles combine chemically in a manner highly depletive of oxygen, causing estuaries to become anoxic.

When pesticides are incorporated into the marine ecosystem, they quickly become absorbed into marine food webs. Once in the food webs, these pesticides can cause mutations, as well as diseases, which can be harmful to humans as well as the entire food web.

Toxic metals can also be introduced into marine food webs. These can cause a change to tissue matter, biochemistry, behaviour, reproduction, and suppress growth in marine life. Also, many animal feeds have a high fish meal or fish hydrolysate content. In this way, marine toxins can be transferred to land animals, and appear later in meat and dairy products.

Noise pollution:



The present generation and the coming generations have to solve three grave problems, namely, population poverty and pollution if they have to survive. Pollution being the most dangerous problem likes cancer in which death is sure but slow. Environment pollution is assuming dangerous proportions all through the globe and India is not free from this poisonous disease. This is the gift of modern living, industrialization and urbanization. Unless timely action is taken we have a forbid and bleak future for the world.

Measurement:-

A decibel is the standard for the measurement of noise. The zero on a decibel scale is at the threshold of hearing, the lowest sound pressure that can be heard, on the scale acc. To smith, 20 db is whisper, 40 db the noise in a quiet office . 60 db is normal conversation, 80 db is the level at which sound becomes physically painful.

The Noise quantum of some of the cities in our country indicate their pitch in decibel in the nosiest areas of corresponding cities, e.g. Delhi- 80 db, Kolkata - 87,Bombay-85, Chennai-89 db etc.

3 Sources of Noise Pollution:- Noise pollution like other pollutants is also a by- product of industrialization, urbanizations and modern civilization.

Broadly speaking , the noise pollution has two sources, i.e. industrial and non- industrial. The industrial source includes the noise from various industries and big machines working at a very high speed and high noise intensity. Non- industrial source of noise includes the noise created by transport/vehicular traffic and the neighborhood noise generated by various noise pollution can also be divided in the categories , namely, natural and manmade. Most leading noise sources will fall into the following categories: roads traffic, aircraft, railroads, construction, industry, noise in buildings, and consumer products

1. Road Traffic Noise:-

In the city, the main sources of traffic noise are the motors and exhaust system of autos , smaller trucks, buses, and motorcycles. This type of noise can be augmented by narrow streets and tall buildings, which produce a canyon in which traffic noise reverberates.

2. Air Craft Noise: -

Now-a-days , the problem of low flying military aircraft has added a new dimension to community annoyance, as the nation seeks to improve its nap-of the- earth aircraft operations over national parks, wilderness areas , and other areas previously unaffected by aircraft noise has claimed national attention over recent years.

3. Noise from railroads: -

The noise from locomotive engines, horns and whistles, and switching and shunting operation in rail yards can impact neighboring communities and railroad workers. For example, rail car retarders can produce a high frequency, high level screech that can reach peak levels of 120 dB at a distance of 100 feet, which translates to levels as high as 138, or 140 dB at the railroad worker’s ear.

4. Construction Noise:-

The noise from the construction of highways , city streets , and buildings is a major contributor to the urban scene . Construction noise sources include pneumatic hammers, air compressors, bulldozers, loaders, dump trucks (and their back-up signals), and pavement breakers.

5. Noise in Industry: -

Although industrial noise is one of the less prevalent community noise problems, neighbors of noisy manufacturing plants can be disturbed by sources such as fans, motors, and compressors mounted on the outside of buildings Interior noise can also be transmitted to the community through open windows and doors, and even through building walls. These interior noise sources have significant impacts on industrial workers, among whom noise- induced hearing loss is unfortunately common.

6. Noise in building: -

Apartment dwellers are often annoyed by noise in their homes, especially when the building is not well designed and constructed. In this case, internal building noise from plumbing, boilers, generators, air conditioners, and fans, can be audible and annoying. Improperly insulated walls and ceilings can reveal the soundof-amplified music, voices, footfalls and noisy activities from neighboring units. External noise from emergency vehicles, traffic, refuse collection, and other city noises can be a problem for urban residents, especially when windows are open or insufficiently glazed.

7. Noise from Consumer products:-

Certain household equipment, such as vacuum cleaners and some kitchen appliances have been and continue to be noisemakers, although their contribution to the daily noise dose is usually not very large

Harmful Effects:

On Human Being, Animal and Property: Noise has always been with the human civilization but it was never so obvious, so intense, so varied & so pervasive as it is seen in the last of this century. Noise pollution makes men more irritable. The effect of noise pollution is multifaceted & inter related. The effects of Noise Pollution on Human Being, Animal and property are as follows:

I It decreases the efficiency of a man:- Regarding the impact of noise on human efficiency there are number of experiments which print out the fact that human efficiency increases with noise reduction. A study by Sinha & Sinha in India suggested that reducing industrial booths could improve the quality of their work. Thus human efficiency is related with noise.

II Lack of concentration:- For better quality of work there should be concentration , Noise causes lack of concentration. In big cities , mostly all the offices are on main road. The noise of traffic or the loud speakers of different types of horns divert the attention of the people working in offices.

III Fatigue:- Because of Noise Pollution, people cannot concentrate on their work. Thus they have to give their more time for completing the work and they feel tiring

Control:

Factories Act Reduction of Noise and Oil of Machinery:- The Factories Act does not contain any specific provision for noise control. However, unde the Third Schedule Sections 89 and 90 of the Act, noise induced hearing loss, is mentioned as notifiable disease. Similarly, under the Modal Rules, limits for noise exposure for work zone area have been prescribed.

Motor Vehicle Act. Provision Relation to use of horn and change of Engine:- In Motor veichle Act rules regarding use horns and any modification in engine are made.

Noise Pollution Control Rule 2000 under Environment Protection Act 1996 :-

Further for better regulation for noise pollution There are The Noise Pollution ( Regulation and Control ) Rules, 2000 – in order to curb the growing problem of noise pollution the government of India has enacted the noise pollution rules 2000 that includes the following main provisions:-

# The state government may categories the areas in the industrial or commercial or residential

# The ambient air quality standards in respect of noise for different areas have been specified.

# State government shall take measure for abatement of noise including noise emanating from vehicular movement and ensure that the existing noise levels do not exceed the ambient air quality standards specified under these rules.

Thermal pollution:

Thermal pollution is usually associated with increases of water temperatures in a stream, lake, or ocean due to the discharge of heated water from industrial processes, such as the generation of electricity. Increases in ambient water temperature also occur in streams where shading vegetation along the banks is removed or where sediments have made the water more turbid . Both of these effects allow more energy from the sun to be absorbed by the water and thereby increase its temperature. There are also situations in which the effects of colder-than-normal water temperatures may be observed. For example, the discharge of cold bottom water from deep-water reservoirs behind large dams has changed the downstream biological communities in systems such as the Colorado River.

Sources:

The production of energy from a fuel source can be direct, such as the burning of wood in a fireplace to create heat, or by the conversion of heat energy into mechanical energy by the use of a heat engine. Examples of heat engines include steam engines, turbines , and internal combustion engines. Heat engines work on the principal of heating and pressuring a fluid, the performance of mechanical work, and the rejection of unused or waste heat to a sink . Heat engines can only convert 30 to 40 percent of the available input energy in the fuel source into mechanical energy, and the highest efficiencies are obtained when the input temperature is as high as possible and the sink temperature is as low as possible. Water is a very efficient and economical sink for heat engines and it is commonly used in electrical generating stations.

Effects

The primary effects of thermal pollution are direct thermal shock , changes in dissolved oxygen, and the redistribution of organisms in the local community. Because water can absorb thermal energy with only small changes in temperature, most aquatic organisms have developed enzyme systems that operate in only narrow ranges of temperature. These stenothermic organisms can be killed by sudden temperature changes that are beyond the tolerance limits of their metabolic systems. The cooling water discharges of power plants are designed to minimize heat effects on local fish communities. However, periodic heat treatments used to keep the cooling system clear of fouling organisms that clog the intake pipes can cause fish mortality. A heat treatment reverses the flow and increases the temperature of the discharge to kill the mussels and other fouling organisms in the intake pipes. Southern California Edison had developed a "fish-chase" procedure in which the water temperature of the heat treatment is increased gradually, instead of rapidly, to drive fish away from the intake pipes before the temperature reaches lethal levels. The fish chase procedure has significantly reduced fish kills related to heat treatments.



Nuclear Hazards:



As the world focuses on high-profile nuclear weapons and uranium-enrichment plants, little attention is being paid to the dangers of radioactivity caused by nuclear accidents and careless handling of nuclear waste.

The recent incident in Karnataka, India, where 50 workers were exposed to radiation at a nuclear power plant is an instance of how hazardous nuclear power can be.

The Indian authorities have downplayed last week’s happening as ‘mischief’ and not an accident. But that hardly detracts from the dangers of nuclear power.

The fact is that ever since the atom was tamed — for power generation and bomb production — scientists have been aware of the dangers radioactivity carries for people exposed to it, including cancer.

Many accidents that have occurred in the industrialised world have made headlines. Thus Three Mile Island in 1979, Chernobyl in 1986 and Tokaimura in 1999 created a sensation and gave rise to the awareness of the flip side of nuclear energy.

What needs to be noted is that each of the three accidents occurred in a developed country where precautionary measures are supposed to be stringent.

Yet they could not escape the dangers posed by mechanical failures and carelessness in following safety protocols.

Can we expect better performance from developing countries such as India and Pakistan where workers and the public lack the expertise, awareness and knowledge to make nuclear energy safe?

Though not of a nuclear nature, India’s Bhopal gas leak experience in 1986 is a case in point. In Pakistan voices have been raised against the authorities’ practice of dumping uranium waste near the mines in Dera Ghazi Khan.

According to reports the incidence of leukemia is higher in the region. Although this has been denied, a recent report that the government plans to set up a new body for pre-disposal storage of radioactive waste makes one wonder what was being done all along.

The government is planning to increase the share of nuclear energy in the power production package from the present one per cent to 4.2 per cent.

solid waste management:

Definition

Systematic control of generation, collection, storage, transport, source separation, processing, treatment, recovery, and disposal of solid waste.

Causes:

Lack of dumping sites where to deposit the solid waste. This is because the issue of waste management is new in the country. It wasn't considered to be a problem before.

Ignorance of the masses about the need to dispose of these wastes well and how to dispose of them (the wastes) off. There is lack of enough literacy program on Waste management which leaves most of the people backward on waste management. This is because of poor or no sensitization of the masses by the government and other organizations of Uganda.

Inefficient collection methods which is mainly due to lack of funds to provide the necessary machinery. In Uganda, machinery like the trucks that carry the waste from the various areas have poor covering systems such that even the waste goes on leaking on the road while being transported, and even there are few places with proper garbage containers or at times the containers are over flooded when there are rain showers.

Poor government attitude towards waste management. From a citizen's point of view, it is realize that very little money from the government is directed towards waste management, with most of it going towards industrialization. This leads to poor purchase of collecting equipment.





CONTROL MEASURES:

The assumption of UA advocates that the marriage of urban agriculture and waste solid reduction/treatment will contribute to better health in the long run, through improved nutrition and incomes, is reasonable. Nevertheless, the summary information presented here shows that there are legitimate concerns that must be addressed in the management and facilitation of agricultural and waste management practices.

My preliminary suggestions are for the promoters of UA to draw upon the interdisciplinary expertise on human waste reuse in agriculture and aquaculture, to use the frameworks of environmental risk assessment to involve UA stakeholders in awareness of risks and ameliorative measures and, to link UA scholars and practitioners with public health and epidemiological experts for focussed research on key issues.

. PUBLIC HEALTH CONCERNS IN RELATION TO URBAN AGRICULTURE

In the development of human settlements, a primary motivation for regulating or even forbidding practices of food production has been concerns about human health, from infections to accidents. Some of the earliest known regulations in human settlements pertain to animal raising and consumption (cf. Jewish and Muslim prohibitions on consumption of pork; kosher and halal regulations). But, on many occasions, what really constitutes a public health risk has been defined flexibly by local authorities. For instance, when Britain was under siege during the Second World War, regulations against raising animals in urban areas were relaxed to encourage local food production (Hough 1981). Europeans have been prepared, in emergencies, to adopt practices that they would condemn at other times. From about 1943, Germans were encouraged to use their excreta in backyard gardens; despite a long history of concern with hygiene and public cleanliness in Germany, the Nazi government was too preoccupied at the time to monitor these practices.

It is worth remembering this historical flexibility when judging the practices of poor citizens in cities of developing countries today.

Can individuals also contribute to Pollution Prevention?

When most people hear the word “pollution”, they immediately conjure up images of billowing smokestacks; massive pipes pouring green slime into pristine waterways, and rusting barrels of toxic sludge. However, a substantial portion of the environmental pollution people experience every day originates from small-scale sources that can add up quickly, such as automobile exhaust, the electricity used for home heating and lighting, the water used for housecleaning and sanitation, as well as common household chemicals. Individuals are often able to lessen those effects and still live in comfort and safety. As a matter of fact, applying pollution prevention methods around the house can substantially reduce utility bills, create a healthier home setting, improve the quality of the yard and other surroundings, and potentially increase the value of the home.

Many individuals who have plans for either building a new house or remodeling their current home have incorporated pollution prevention measures in both the design of the home and the selection of the materials used in the job. Contractors can provide either recycled building supplies and safer, healthier insulation materials. Ventilation specialists can offer options that can improve energy efficiency and reduce indoor air pollution. When selecting electrical appliances such as refrigerators, computers and televisions for the new home, people can shop for devices that outline their energy consumption needs or carry a seal of approval such as “Energy Star”. These selections























reduce energy output and utility costs as well as cutting down on the resources needed to maintain the required electricity levels.

Not only is improper disposal of waste oil considered environmentally irresponsible, it is also illegal in many jurisdictions.



Pollution CASE STUDIES

One of the key objectives of the World Water Assessment Programme (WWAP) is to help countries improve their self-assessment capability by building on existing strengths and experiences. WWAP fulfils this mission by assisting in the preparation of case studies in countries around the world in order to highlight the state of water resources where different physical, climatic and socio-economic conditions prevail. In this regard, case studies show the diversity of circumstances and different human needs. The second purpose of the case studies is to highlight the challenges that need to be addressed in the water resources sector. In the process, the skills and experience of both local water professionals and policy-makers are engaged and enhanced.

The World Water Assessment Programme is both global and local in scale, for it must check the accuracy of the big picture on the basis of snapshots of water in the field. In the global strategy to improve the overall quality of water resources, local actions often present the starting point the most fruitful efforts. The WWAP case studies aim to provide a snapshot of those efforts while showing the significance of the decisions taken at local, sub-national and national levels.

The lessons learned, from both successes and failures, may be shared with other countries interested in addressing such issues. For the 1st United Nations World Water).























Disaster management:

Table 1. Applications of space remote sensing in disaster management

Disaster Prevention Preparedness (Warning) Relief

Earthquakes Mapping geological lineaments land use Geodynamic measurements ofstrain accumulation Locate stricken areas, mapdamage

Volcanic eruptions Topographi and land use maps Detection/measurement of gaseous emissions Mapping lava flows, ashfalls and lahars,map damage

Landslides Topographic and land use maps Rainfall,slope stability Mapping slide area

Flash floods Land use maps Local rainfall measurements Map flood damage

Major floods Flood plain maps; land use maps Regional rainfall;evapotranspiration Map extent of floods

Storm surge Land use and land cover maps Sea state;ocean surface wind velocities Map extent of damage

Hurricanes Synoptic weather forecasts Map extent of damage

Tornadoes Nowcasts; local weather Local weather observations Map amount, extent of damage

Drought Long ranged climate models Monitoring vegetative biomass;